Parramatta eCommerce: Website Design for Success

Parramatta has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) with mild to cool, somewhat short winters and warm to usually hot summers, alongside moderate rainfall spread throughout the year.

Summer maximum temperatures are quite variable, often reaching above 35 °C (95 °F), on average 13.1 days in the summer season, and sometimes remaining in the low 20s, especially after a cold front or a sea breeze, such as the southerly buster. Northwesterlies can occasionally bring hot winds from the desert that can raise temperatures higher than 40 °C (104 °F) mostly from November to February, and sometimes above 44 °C (111 °F) in January severe heatwaves. The record highest temperature (since 1967) was 47.0 °C (116.6 °F) on 4 January 2020. Parramatta is warmer than Sydney CBD in the summer due to the urban heat island effect and its inland location. In extreme cases though, it can be 5–10 °C (9–18 °F) warmer than Sydney, especially when sea breezes do not penetrate inland on hot summer and spring days. For example, on 28 November 2009, the city reached 29.3 °C (84.7 °F),^[24] while Parramatta reached 39.0 °C (102.2 °F),^[25] almost 10 °C (18 °F) higher. In the summer, Parramatta, among other places in western Sydney, can often be the hottest place in the world because of the Blue Mountains trapping hot air in the region, in addition to the UHI effect.^[26]

Rainfall is slightly higher during the first three months of the year because the anticlockwise-rotating subtropical high is to the south of the country, thereby allowing moist easterlies from the Tasman Sea to penetrate the city.^[27][28] The second half of the year tends to be drier (late winter/spring) since the subtropical high is to the north of the city, thus permitting dry westerlies from the interior to dominate.^[29] Drier winters are also owed to its position on the leeward side of the Great Dividing Range, which block westerly cold fronts (that are more common in late winter) and thus would become foehn winds, whereby allowing decent amount of sunny days and relatively low precipitation in that period.^[30] Thunderstorms are common in the months from early spring to early autumn, occasionally quite severe thunderstorms can occur. Snow is virtually unknown, having been recorded only in 1836 and 1896^[31] Parrammatta gets 106.6 days of clear skies annually.

Depending on the wind direction, summer weather may be humid or dry, though the humidity is mostly in the comfortable range, with the late summer/autumn period having a higher average humidity than late winter/early spring.

Church Street is home to many shops and restaurants. The northern end of Church Street, close to Lennox Bridge, features al fresco dining with a diverse range of cuisines. Immediately south of the CBD Church Street is known across Sydney as 'Auto Alley' for the many car dealerships lining both sides of the street as far as the M4 Motorway.^[33]

Since 2000, Parramatta has seen the consolidation of its role as a government centre, with the relocation of agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force Headquarters and the Sydney Water Corporation^[12] from Sydney CBD. At the same time, major construction work occurred around the railway station with the expansion of Westfield Shoppingtown and the creation of a new transport interchange. The western part of the Parramatta CBD is known as the Parramatta Justice Precinct and houses the corporate headquarters of the Department of Communities and Justice. Other legal offices include the Children's Court of New South Wales and the Sydney West Trial Courts, Legal Aid Commission of NSW, Office of Trustee and Guardian (formerly the Office of the Protective Commissioner), NSW Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages, and the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions. Nearby on Marsden Street is the Parramatta Courthouse and the Drug Court of New South Wales. The Garfield Barwick Commonwealth Law Courts Building (named in honour of Sir Garfield Barwick), houses courts of the Federal Magistrates Court and the Family Court of Australia. The NSW Government has also announced plans to secure up to 45,000 m² of new A-grade leased office space in Parramatta to relocate a further 4,000 workers from the Sydney CBD.^[34]

Parramatta Square (previously known as Civic Place) is a civic precinct located in the heart of the city, adjacent to Parramatta Town Hall. The Parramatta Square construction works included a redevelopment of the Parramatta Civic Centre, construction of a new culture and arts centre, and the construction of a new plaza. The designs of the first two projects, a 65-storey residential skyscraper and an office building were announced on 20 July 2012.^[35] Concerns from CASA about infringements into controlled airspace from the height of the residential tower resulted in 8 Parramatta Square being turned into a 55-story commercial building, rather than the originally proposed 65-storey residential tower.^[36] Parramatta Square became home to 3,000 National Australia Bank employees, relocated from the Sydney CBD.^[37] Other notable commercial tenants who have established a presence at Parramatta Square include Westpac, Endeavour Energy, KPMG and Deloitte.^[38]

Centenary Square, formerly known as Centenary Plaza, was created in 1975 when the then Parramatta City Council closed a section of the main street to traffic to create a pedestrian plaza. It features an 1888 Centennial Memorial Fountain and adjoins the 1883 Parramatta Town Hall and St John's Cathedral.^[39]

A hospital known as The Colonial Hospital was established in Parramatta in 1818.^[40] This then became Parramatta District Hospital. Jeffery House was built in the 1940s. With the construction of the nearby Westmead Hospital complex public hospital services in Parramatta were reduced but after refurbishment Jeffery House again provides clinical health services. Nearby, Brislington House has had a long history with health services. It is the oldest colonial building in Parramatta, dating to 1821.^[41] It became a doctors residence before being incorporated into the Parramatta Hospital in 1949.

Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the tenth largest shopping centre in Australia.^[42] Parramatta is also the major transport hub for Western Sydney, servicing trains and buses, as well as having a ferry wharf and future light rail and metro services. Major upgrades have occurred around Parramatta railway station with the creation of a new transport interchange, and the ongoing development of the Parramatta Square local government precinct.^[43]

Church Street takes its name from St John's Cathedral (Anglican), which was built in 1802 and is the oldest church in Parramatta. While the present building is not the first on the site, the towers were built during the time of Governor Macquarie, and were based on those of the church at Reculver, England, at the suggestion of his wife, Elizabeth.^[44] The historic St John's Cemetery is located nearby on O'Connell Street.^[45]

St Patrick's Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is one of the oldest Catholic churches in Australia. Construction commenced in 1836, but it wasn't officially complete until 1837. In 1854 a new church was commissioned, although the tower was not completed until 1880, with the spire following in 1883.^[46] It was built on the site to meet the needs of a growing congregation. It was destroyed by fire in 1996, with only the stone walls remaining.

On 29 November 2003, the new St Patrick's Cathedral was dedicated.^[47] The historic St Patrick's Cemetery is located in North Parramatta. The Uniting Church is represented by Leigh Memorial Church.^[48] Parramatta Salvation Army is one of the oldest active Salvation Army Corps in Australia. Parramatta is also home to the Parramatta and Districts Synagogue, which services the Jewish community of western Sydney.^[49]

The Greek Orthodox Parish and Community of St Ioannis (St John The Frontrunner) Greek Orthodox Church was established in Parramatta in May 1960 under the ecumenical jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia to serve the predominantly emigrating Greek population of Greater Western Sydney. Originally, the liturgies were held in the hall of St John's Ambulance Brigade in Harris Park until the completion of the church in December 1966 located in Hassall Street Parramatta. The parish sold this property in 2014 and is now located at the corner of George and Purchase Streets.^[50] The Parish Community of St Ioannis continues to serve over 5,000 Greek parishioners.^[51]

A Buddhist temple is located in Cowper Street, Parramatta.^[52] Parramatta's Mosque is in an apartment building on Marsden Street, Parramatta.^[53] The district is served by BAPS Swaminarayan Hindu temple located on Eleanor St, Rosehill,^[54] and a Murugan Hindu temple in Mays Hill, off Great Western Highway.^[55]

Parramatta Park is a large park adjacent to Western Sydney Stadium that is a popular venue for walking, jogging and bike riding. It was formerly the Governor's Domain, being land set aside for the Governor to supply his farming needs, until it was gazetted as a public park in 1858.^[56] As the Governor's Domain, the grounds were considerably larger than the current 85 hectare Parramatta Park, extending from Parramatta Road in the south as evident by a small gatehouse adjacent to Parramatta High School. For a time Parramatta Park housed a zoo^[57] until 1951 when the animals were transferred to Taronga Zoo.

Parramatta is known as the 'River City' as the Parramatta River flows through the Parramatta CBD.^[58] Its foreshore features a playground, seating, picnic tables and pathways that are increasingly popular with residents, visitors and CBD workers.^[59]

Prince Alfred Square is a Victorian era park located within the CBD on the northern side of the Parramatta River. It is one of the oldest public parks in New South Wales with trees dating from c. 1869. Prior to being a public park, it was the site of Parramatta's second gaol from 1804 until 1841 and the first female factory in Australia between 1804 and 1821.

In contrast to the high level of car dependency throughout Sydney, a greater proportion of Parramatta's workers travelled to work on public transport (45.2%) than by car (36.2%) in 2016.^[60]

Parramatta railway station is served by Sydney Trains' Cumberland Line, Leppington & Inner West Line and North Shore & Western Line services.^[61] NSW TrainLink operates intercity services on the Blue Mountains Line as well as services to rural New South Wales. The station was originally opened in 1855, located in what is now Granville, and known as Parramatta Junction. The station was moved to its current location and opened on 4 July 1860, five years after the first railway line in Sydney was opened, running from Sydney to Parramatta Junction.^[62] It was upgraded in the 2000s, with work beginning in late 2003 and the new interchange opening on 19 February 2006.^[63]

The light rail Westmead & Carlingford Line runs from Westmead to Carlingford via the Parramatta city centre. A future branch will run to Sydney Olympic Park.^[64]

The under construction Sydney Metro West will be a metro line run between the Sydney central business district and Westmead. Announced in 2016,^[65] the line is set to open in 2032 with a station in Parramatta.^[66]

Parramatta is also serviced by a major bus interchange located on the south eastern side of the railway station. The interchange is served by buses utilising the North-West T-way to Rouse Hill and the Liverpool–Parramatta T-way to Liverpool. Parramatta is also serviced by one high frequency Metrobus service:

• M91 – Parramatta to Hurstville via Granville, Bankstown and Peakhurst

A free bus Route 900 is operated by Transit Systems in conjunction with the state government. Route 900 circles Parramatta CBD.^[67] A free bus also links Western Sydney Stadium to Parramatta railway station during major sporting events.

The Parramatta ferry wharf is at the Charles Street Weir, which divides the tidal saltwater from the freshwater of the upper river, on the eastern boundary of the Central Business District. The wharf is the westernmost destination of Sydney Ferries' Parramatta River ferry services.^[68]

Parramatta Road has always been an important thoroughfare for Sydney from its earliest days. From Parramatta the major western road for the state is the Great Western Highway. The M4 Western Motorway, running parallel to the Great Western Highway has taken much of the traffic away from these roads, with entrance and exit ramps close to Parramatta.

James Ruse Drive serves as a partial ring-road circling around the eastern part of Parramatta to join with the Cumberland Highway to the north west of the city.

The main north-south route through Parramatta is Church Street. To the north it becomes Windsor Road, and to the south it becomes Woodville Road.

Historical population

Year	Pop.	±%
2001	17,982	—
2006	18,448	+2.6%
2011	19,745	+7.0%
2016	25,798	+30.7%
2021	30,211	+17.1%

According to the 2016 census conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the suburb of Parramatta had a population of 30,211. Of these:^[69]

Ethnic diversity

The most common country of birth in Parramatta is India representing 30.9% of the population, outnumbering Australian born residents at 24.8%. The next most common are China 8.9%, Nepal 5.5%, Philippines 2.5% and Iran 1.3%. However, only 6.8% identify their ancestry as Australian; the other common self-identified ancestries were Indian 27.3%, Chinese 15.3%, English 8.5% and Nepali 5.5%. About one quarter (24.4%) of people spoke English at home; other languages spoken at home included Hindi 10.4%, Mandarin 8.8%, Nepali 5.3%, Tamil 5.0% and Telugu 4.3%.

Religion

This question is optional in the Census. Of the people who answered it, the most common response was Hinduism 33.6%; the next most common responses were "No Religion" 21.6%, Catholic 12.1%, Not stated 7.7% and Islam 7.5%.

Age distribution

Parramatta has an over-representation of young adults when compared to the country as a whole. Parramatta residents' median age was 32 years, compared to the national median of 38. Children aged under 15 years made up 16.3% of the population (national average is 18.2%) and people aged 65 years and over made up 6.6% of the population (national average is 17.2%).

Income

The average weekly household income was $2,092, compared to the national average of $1,746.

Housing

The majority of dwellings in Parramatta (85.6%) were flats, units or apartments; 7.7% were separate houses, and 5.7% were semi-detached (mostly townhouses). The average household size was 2.4 people. In 2021, 2.2% of households were public housing, compared to 6.3% in 2016.^[70]

• Keith Agget (1931–2017), rugby league player
• Bernie Banton (1946–2007), builder and social justice campaigner
• Richie Benaud (1930–2015), cricketer and commentator
• Allan Cunningham (1791–1839), explorer and botanist
• Greg Dyer (born 1959), cricketer
• Gerry Hazlitt (1888–1915), cricketer
• Paul Hogan (born 1939), comedian and actor
• Harry Hopman (1906–1985), tennis player
• David Lennox (1788–1873), colonial bridge builder
• John Lewin (1770–1819), first professional artist in New South Wales
• Bruce Mann (1926–2007), rugby league player
• George McIver (1859–1945), science fiction writer
• Rev. Samuel Marsden (1765–1838), known as the "flogging parson"
• Mary Cover Hassall (1799–1825), Methodist missionary to Tonga Island
• Dowell Philip O'Reilly (1865–1923), poet and politician
• Todd Payten (born 1979), rugby league player and coach
• "Jock" Ross (born 1943), outlaw biker.
• Nora Kate Weston (1880-1965), artisan
• J. C. Wharton (1853–1929), editor of Parramatta Times (defunct) and a local history^[71]

Parramatta is home to several primary and secondary schools. Arthur Phillip High School was established in 1960 in its own right, in buildings which had been used continuously as a school since 1875 is the oldest continuously operating public school in Parramatta. Parramatta High School was the first coeducational school in the Sydney metropolitan area established in 1913. Our Lady of Mercy College is one of the oldest Catholic schools in Australia. Macarthur Girls High School is successor to an earlier school 'Parramatta Commercial and Household Arts School'. Others schools include Parramatta Public School, Parramatta East Public School, Parramatta West Public School, and St Patrick's Primary Parramatta.

Several tertiary education facilities are also located within Parramatta. A University of New England study centre and two Western Sydney University campuses are situated in Parramatta. The Western Sydney University Parramatta Campus consists of two sites: Parramatta South (the primary site) which occupies the site of the historic Female Orphan School^[72] and Parramatta North (the secondary site) which includes the adjacent Western Sydney University Village Parramatta (formerly UWS Village Parramatta) an on campus student village accommodation. Whereby, the flagship Parramatta City Campus Precinct consists of two buildings: the Engineering Innovation Hub located at 6 Hassall Street and the Peter Shergold Building located at 1 Parramatta Square (169 Macquarie Street).^[73] Alphacrucis University College is a Christian liberal arts college with a campus in Parramatta located at 30 Cowper Street.^[74] The University of Sydney has also announced that it intends to establish a new campus in Parramatta.^[75]

The Parramatta Advertiser is the local newspaper serving Parramatta and surrounding suburbs.

On 16 March 2020, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation opened a new Western Sydney newsroom in Horwood Place at Parramatta incorporating space for 12 staff and news production equipment with the capacity to broadcast live radio programs.^[76] According to the ABC, the opening formed part of its strategic goal to improve its presence in outer metropolitan areas.^[76] Additionally, the ABC announced on 16 June 2021 its intention to relocate approximately 300 employees to Parramatta, which is part of a five-year plan which aims to have 75% of its content makers based away from the network's Ultimo headquarters by 2025.^[77][78]

As the centre of the City of Parramatta, as well as the centre and second largest business district of Sydney, Parramatta hosts many festivals and events.^[79] Riverside Theatres is a performing arts centre located on the northern bank of Parramatta River. The city hosts the following events:

• January – Sydney Festival and Australia Day^[80]
• February – Lunar New Year and Tropfest^[81]
• April – Anzac Day
• July – Winterlight and Burramatta Day (Naidoc)
• October – Parramasala and Parramatta Lanes^[82]
• November – Loy Krathong, Christmas in Parramatta and Foundation Day
• December – New Year's Eve

Parramatta Park contains Old Government House and thus Parramatta was once the capital of the colony of New South Wales until Governors returned to residing in Sydney in 1846.^[83] Another feature is the natural amphitheatre located on one of the bends of the river, named by Governor Philip as "the Crescent", which is used to stage concerts. It is home to the Dairy Cottage, built from 1798 to 1805, originally a single-room cottage and is one of the earliest surviving cottages in Australia.

The remains of Governor Brisbane's private astronomical observatory, constructed in 1822, are visible. Astronomers who worked at the observatory, discovering thousands of new stars and deep sky objects, include James Dunlop and Carl Rümker. In 1822, the architect S. L. Harris designed the Bath House for Governor Brisbane and built it in 1823. Water was pumped to the building through lead pipes from the river. In 1886, it was converted into a pavilion.^[84]

• The Rosehill Race Course holds various race meets throughout the year, including: Derby Day, Golden Rose Day, and Rosehill Gardens Race Day.
• The Parramatta Farmers Markets^[85] occurs every Friday, and has local produce.

Parramatta is the home of several professional sports teams. These teams include the Parramatta Eels of the National Rugby League and Western Sydney Wanderers of the A-League. Both teams formerly played matches at Parramatta Stadium that has since been demolished, and replaced with the 30,000-seat Western Sydney Stadium.^[86] Parramatta Stadium was also home to the now dissolved Sydney Wave of the former Australian Baseball League and Parramatta Power of the former National Soccer League. The newly built Bankwest Stadium opened its gates for the community on 14 April 2019 with free entry for all fans. Located on O’Connell Street, the stadium is in proximity of the Parramatta CBD. The opening sporting event was the 2019 Round 6 NRL clash between Western Sydney rivals the Parramatta Eels and Wests Tigers on Easter Monday 22 April. The Eels won the match by a score of 51–6. It is being predicted that the new stadium will boost Western Sydney economy by contributing millions of dollars to it.^[87]

Duran Duran's “Union of the Snake” music video with Russell Mulcahy was filmed in 1983 at Parramatta using 35mm film.^[88]

The 2013 superhero film The Wolverine used the intersection of George Street and Smith Street as a filming location to depict Tokyo, Japan.^[89]

Parramatta has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

• List of tallest buildings in Parramatta
• Parramatta cloth
• Story Factory

• Parramatta City Council website
• Parramatta Park website
• Parramatta & District Historical Society Inc website

• "Parramatta". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 28 September 2015. [CC-By-SA]
• Chris Levins – Parramatta Park Trust (2010). "Parramatta Park". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 28 September 2015. [CC-By-SA]
• Michaela Ann Cameron (2015). "Brislington". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 2 October 2015. [CC-By-SA]
• Michaela Ann Cameron (2015). "The Crescent". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 6 October 2015. [CC-By-SA]
• Michaela Ann Cameron (2015). "Travellers' Rest Inn Parramatta". Dictionary of Sydney. Dictionary of Sydney Trust. Retrieved 11 October 2015.[CC-By-SA]
• Michaela Ann Cameron (2015). "Roseneath Cottage". Dictionary of Sydney. Dictionary of Sydney Trust. Retrieved 16 October 2015.[CC-By-SA]

 

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The web development life cycle is a method that outlines the stages involved in building websites and web applications. It provides a structured approach, ensuring optimal results throughout the development process.^{[citation needed]}

A typical Web Development process can be divided into 7 steps.

Debra Howcraft and John Carroll proposed a methodology in which web development process can be divided into sequential steps. They mentioned different aspects of analysis.^[17]

Phase one involves crafting a web strategy and analyzing how a website can effectively achieve its goals. Keil et al.'s research^[18] identifies the primary reasons for software project failures as a lack of top management commitment and misunderstandings of system requirements. To mitigate these risks, Phase One establishes strategic goals and objectives, designing a system to fulfill them. The decision to establish a web presence should ideally align with the organization's corporate information strategy.

The analysis phase can be divided into 3 steps:

• Development of a web strategy
• Defining objectives
• Objective analysis

During this phase, the previously outlined objectives and available resources undergo analysis to determine their feasibility. This analysis is divided into six tasks, as follows:

• Technology analysis: Identification of all necessary technological components and tools for constructing, hosting, and supporting the site.
• Information analysis: Identification of user-required information, whether static (web page) or dynamic (pulled "live" from a database server).
• Skills analysis: Identification of the diverse skill sets necessary to complete the project.
• User analysis: Identification of all intended users of the site, a more intricate process due to the varied range of users and technologies they may use.
• Cost analysis: Estimation of the development cost for the site or an evaluation of what is achievable within a predefined budget.
• Risk analysis: Examination of any major risks associated with site development.

Following this analysis, a more refined set of objectives is documented. Objectives that cannot be presently fulfilled are recorded in a Wish List, constituting part of the Objectives Document. This documentation becomes integral to the iterative process during the subsequent cycle of the methodology.^[17]

It is crucial for web developers to be engaged in formulating a plan and determining the optimal architecture and selecting the frameworks.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, developers/consultants play a role in elucidating the total cost of ownership associated with supporting a website, which may surpass the initial development expenses.

Key aspects in this step are:

• Sitemap creation
• Wireframe creation
• Tech stack

Following the analysis phase, the development process moves on to the design phase, which is guided by the objectives document. Recognizing the incremental growth of websites and the potential lack of good design architecture, the methodology includes iteration to account for changes and additions over the life of the site. The design phase, which is divided into Information Design and Graphic Design, results in a detailed Design Document that details the structure of the website, database data structures, and CGI scripts.*

The following step, design testing, focuses on early, low-cost testing to identify inconsistencies or flaws in the design. This entails comparing the website's design to the goals and objectives outlined in the first three steps. Phases One and Two involve an iterative loop in which objectives in the Objectives Document are revisited to ensure alignment with the design. Any objectives that are removed are added to the Wish List for future consideration.^[17]

Key aspects in this step are:

• Page layouts
• Review
• Approval

No matter how visually appealing a website is, good communication with clients is critical. The primary purpose of content production is to create a communication channel through the user interface by delivering relevant information about your firm in an engaging and easily understandable manner. This includes:^{[citation needed]}

• Developing appealing calls to action
• Making creative headlines
• Content formatting for readability
• Carrying out line editing
• Text updating throughout the site development process.

The stage of content production is critical in establishing the branding and marketing of your website or web application. It serves as a platform for defining the purpose and goals of your online presence through compelling and convincing content.

During this critical stage, the website is built while keeping its fundamental goal in mind, paying close attention to all graphic components to assure the establishment of a completely working site.

The procedure begins with the development of the main page, which is followed by the production of interior pages. The site's navigational structure is being refined in particular.

During this development phase, key functionality such as the Content Management System, interactive contact forms, and shopping carts are activated.

The coding process includes creating all of the site's software and installing it on the appropriate Web servers. This can range from simple things like posting to a Web server to more complex tasks like establishing database connections.

In any web project, the testing phase is incredibly intricate and difficult. Because web apps are frequently designed for a diverse and often unknown user base running in a range of technological environments, their complexity exceeds that of traditional Information Systems (IS). To ensure maximum reach and efficacy, the website must be tested in a variety of contexts and technologies. The website moves to the delivery stage after gaining final approval from the designer. To ensure its preparation for launch, the quality assurance team performs rigorous testing for functionality, compatibility, and performance.

Additional testing is carried out, including integration, stress, scalability, load, resolution, and cross-browser compatibility. When the approval is given, the website is pushed to the server via FTP, completing the development process.

Key aspects in this step are:

• Test Lost Links
• Use code validators
• Check browser

The web development process goes beyond deployment to include a variety of post-deployment tasks.

Websites, in example, are frequently under ongoing maintenance, with new items being uploaded on a daily basis. The maintenance costs increases immensely as the site grows in size. The accuracy of content on a website is critical, demanding continuous monitoring to verify that both information and links, particularly external links, are updated. Adjustments are made in response to user feedback, and regular support and maintenance actions are carried out to maintain the website's long-term effectiveness.^[17]

Debra Howcraft and John Carroll discussed a few traditional web development methodologies in their research paper:^[17]

• Waterfall: The waterfall methodology comprises a sequence of cascading steps, addressing the development process with minimal iteration between each stage. However, a significant drawback when applying the waterfall methodology to the development of websites (as well as information systems) lies in its rigid structure, lacking iteration beyond adjacent stages. Any methodology used for the development of Web-sites must be flexible enough to cope with change.^[17]
• Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM): Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) is a widely used methodology for systems analysis and design in information systems and software engineering. Although it does not cover the entire lifecycle of a development project, it places a strong emphasis on the stages of analysis and design in the hopes of minimizing later-stage, expensive errors and omissions.^[17]
• Prototyping: Prototyping is a software development approach in which a preliminary version of a system or application is built to visualize and test its key functionalities. The prototype serves as a tangible representation of the final product, allowing stakeholders, including users and developers, to interact with it and provide feedback.
• Rapid Application Development: Rapid Application Development (RAD) is a software development methodology that prioritizes speed and flexibility in the development process. It is designed to produce high-quality systems quickly, primarily through the use of iterative prototyping and the involvement of end-users. RAD aims to reduce the time it takes to develop a system and increase the adaptability to changing requirements.
• Incremental Prototyping: Incremental prototyping is a software development approach that combines the principles of prototyping and incremental development. In this methodology, the development process is divided into small increments, with each increment building upon the functionality of the previous one. At the same time, prototypes are created and refined in each increment to better meet user requirements and expectations.

Developing a fundamental knowledge of client-side and server-side dynamics is crucial.^{[citation needed]}

The goal of front-end development is to create a website's user interface and visual components that users may interact with directly. On the other hand, back-end development works with databases, server-side logic, and application functionality. Building reliable and user-friendly online applications requires a comprehensive approach, which is ensured by collaboration between front-end and back-end engineers.

Front-end development is the process of designing and implementing the user interface (UI) and user experience (UX) of a web application. It involves creating visually appealing and interactive elements that users interact with directly. The primary technologies and concepts associated with front-end development include:

The 3 core technologies for front-end development are:

• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): HTML provides the structure and organization of content on a webpage.
• CSS (Cascading Style Sheet): Responsible for styling and layout, CSS enhances the presentation of HTML elements, making the application visually appealing.
• JavaScript: It is used to add interactions to the web pages. Advancement in JavaScript has given rise to many popular front- end frameworks like React, Angular and Vue.js etc.

User experience design focuses on creating interfaces that are intuitive, accessible, and enjoyable for users. It involves understanding user behavior, conducting usability studies, and implementing design principles to enhance the overall satisfaction of users interacting with a website or application. This involves wireframing, prototyping, and implementing design principles to enhance user interaction. Some of the popular tools used for UI Wireframing are -

• Sketch for detailed, vector-based design
• Moqups for beginners
• Figma for a free wireframe app
• UXPin for handing off design documentation to developers
• MockFlow for project organization
• Justinmind for interactive wireframes
• Uizard for AI-assisted wireframing

Another key aspect to keep in mind while designing is Web Accessibility- Web accessibility ensures that digital content is available and usable for people of all abilities. This involves adhering to standards like the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), implementing features like alternative text for images, and designing with considerations for diverse user needs, including those with disabilities.

It is important to ensure that web applications are accessible and visually appealing across various devices and screen sizes. Responsive design uses CSS media queries and flexible layouts to adapt to different viewing environments.

A framework is a high-level solution for the reuse of software pieces, a step forward in simple library-based reuse that allows for sharing common functions and generic logic of a domain application.^[19]

Frameworks and libraries are essential tools that expedite the development process. These tools enhance developer productivity and contribute to the maintainability of large-scale applications. Some popular front-end frameworks are:

• React: A JavaScript library for building user interfaces, maintained by Facebook. It allows developers to create reusable UI components.
• Angular: A TypeScript-based front-end framework developed and maintained by Google. It provides a comprehensive solution for building dynamic single-page applications.
• Vue.js: A progressive JavaScript framework that is approachable yet powerful, making it easy to integrate with other libraries or existing projects.

Managing the state of a web application to ensure data consistency and responsiveness. State management libraries like Redux (for React) or Vuex (for Vue.js) play a crucial role in complex applications.

Back-end development involves building the server-side logic and database components of a web application. It is responsible for processing user requests, managing data, and ensuring the overall functionality of the application. Key aspects of back-end development include:

An essential component of the architecture of a web application is a server or cloud instance. A cloud instance is a virtual server instance that can be accessed via the Internet and is created, delivered, and hosted on a public or private cloud. It functions as a physical server that may seamlessly move between various devices with ease or set up several instances on one server. It is therefore very dynamic, scalable, and economical.

Database management is crucial for storing, retrieving, and managing data in web applications. Various database systems, such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB, play distinct roles in organizing and structuring data. Effective database management ensures the responsiveness and efficiency of data-driven web applications. There are 3 types of databases:

• Relational databases: Structured databases that use tables to organize and relate data. Common Examples include - MySQL, PostgreSQL and many more.
• NoSQL databases: NoSQL databases are designed to handle unstructured or semi-structured data and can be more flexible than relational databases. They come in various types, such as document-oriented, key-value stores, column-family stores, and graph databases. Examples: MongoDB, Cassandra, ScyllaDB, CouchDB, Redis.
• Document stores: Document stores store data in a semi-structured format, typically using JSON or XML documents. Each document can have a different structure, providing flexibility. Examples: MongoDB, CouchDB.
• Key-value stores: Key-value stores store data as pairs of keys and values. They are simple and efficient for certain types of operations, like caching. Examples: Redis, DynamoDB.
• Column-family stores: Column-family stores organize data into columns instead of rows, making them suitable for large-scale distributed systems and analytical workloads. Examples: Apache Cassandra, HBase.
• Graph databases: Graph databases are designed to represent and query data in the form of graphs. They are effective for handling relationships and network-type data. Examples: Neo4j, Amazon Neptune.
• In-memory databases: In-memory databases store data in the system's main memory (RAM) rather than on disk. This allows for faster data access and retrieval. Examples: Redis, Memcached.
• Time-series databases: Time-series databases are optimized for handling time-stamped data, making them suitable for applications that involve tracking changes over time. Examples: InfluxDB, OpenTSDB.
• NewSQL databases: NewSQL databases aim to provide the scalability of NoSQL databases while maintaining the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) of traditional relational databases. Examples: Google Spanner, CockroachDB.
• Object-oriented databases: Object-oriented databases store data in the form of objects, which can include both data and methods. They are designed to work seamlessly with object-oriented programming languages. Examples: db4o, ObjectDB.

The choice of a database depends on various factors such as the nature of the data, scalability requirements, performance considerations, and the specific use case of the application being developed. Each type of database has its strengths and weaknesses, and selecting the right one involves considering the specific needs of the project.

Application Programming Interfaces are sets of rules and protocols that allow different software applications to communicate with each other. APIs define the methods and data formats that applications can use to request and exchange information.

• RESTful APIs and GraphQL are common approaches for defining and interacting with web services.

• Web APIs: These are APIs that are accessible over the internet using standard web protocols such as HTTP. RESTful APIs are a common type of web API.
• Library APIs: These APIs provide pre-built functions and procedures that developers can use within their code.
• Operating System APIs: These APIs allow applications to interact with the underlying operating system, accessing features like file systems, hardware, and system services.

Programming languages aimed at server execution, as opposed to client browser execution, are known as server-side languages. These programming languages are used in web development to perform operations including data processing, database interaction, and the creation of dynamic content that is delivered to the client's browser. A key element of server-side programming is server-side scripting, which allows the server to react to client requests in real time.

Some popular server-side languages are:

1. PHP: PHP is a widely used, open-source server-side scripting language. It is embedded in HTML code and is particularly well-suited for web development.
2. Python: Python is a versatile, high-level programming language used for a variety of purposes, including server-side web development. Frameworks like Django and Flask make it easy to build web applications in Python.
3. Ruby: Ruby is an object-oriented programming language, and it is commonly used for web development. Ruby on Rails is a popular web framework that simplifies the process of building web applications.
4. Java: Java is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language. Java-based frameworks like Spring are commonly used for building enterprise-level web applications.
5. Node.js (JavaScript): While JavaScript is traditionally a client-side language, Node.js enables developers to run JavaScript on the server side. It is known for its event-driven, non-blocking I/O model, making it suitable for building scalable and high-performance applications.
6. C# (C Sharp): C# is a programming language developed by Microsoft and is commonly used in conjunction with the .NET framework for building web applications on the Microsoft stack.
7. ASP.NET: ASP.NET is a web framework developed by Microsoft, and it supports languages like C# and VB.NET. It simplifies the process of building dynamic web applications.
8. Go (Golang): Go is a statically typed language developed by Google. It is known for its simplicity and efficiency and is increasingly being used for building scalable and high-performance web applications.
9. Perl: Perl is a versatile scripting language often used for web development. It is known for its powerful text-processing capabilities.
10. Swift: Developed by Apple, Swift is used for server-side development in addition to iOS and macOS app development.
11. Lua: Lua is used for some embedded web servers, e.g. the configuration pages on a router, including OpenWRT.

Implementing security measures to protect against common vulnerabilities, including SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and cross-site request forgery (CSRF). Authentication and authorization mechanisms are crucial for securing data and user access.

Thorough testing and debugging processes are essential for identifying and resolving issues in a web application. Testing may include unit testing, integration testing, and user acceptance testing. Debugging involves pinpointing and fixing errors in the code, ensuring the reliability and stability of the application.

• Unit Testing: Testing individual components or functions to verify that they work as expected.
• Integration Testing: Testing the interactions between different components or modules to ensure they function correctly together.
• Continuous Integration and Deployment (CI/CD): CI/CD pipelines automate testing, deployment, and delivery processes, allowing for faster and more reliable releases.

Full-stack development refers to the practice of designing, building, and maintaining the entire software stack of a web application. This includes both the frontend (client-side) and backend (server-side) components, as well as the database and any other necessary infrastructure. A full-stack developer is someone who has expertise in working with both the frontend and backend technologies, allowing them to handle all aspects of web application development.

• MEAN (MongoDB, Express.js, Angular, Node.js) and MERN (MongoDB, Express.js, React, Node.js) are popular full-stack development stacks that streamline the development process by providing a cohesive set of technologies.

Efficient web development relies on a set of tools and environments that streamline the coding and collaboration processes:

1. Integrated development environments (IDEs): Tools like Visual Studio Code, Atom, and Sublime Text provide features such as code highlighting, autocompletion, and version control integration, enhancing the development experience.
2. Version control: Git is a widely used version control system that allows developers to track changes, collaborate seamlessly, and roll back to previous versions if needed.
3. Collaboration tools: Communication platforms like Slack, project management tools such as Jira, and collaboration platforms like GitHub facilitate effective teamwork and project management.

Security is paramount in web development to protect against cyber threats and ensure the confidentiality and integrity of user data. Best practices include encryption, secure coding practices, regular security audits, and staying informed about the latest security vulnerabilities and patches.

• Common threats: Developers must be aware of common security threats, including SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and cross-site request forgery (CSRF).
• Secure coding practices: Adhering to secure coding practices involves input validation, proper data sanitization, and ensuring that sensitive information is stored and transmitted securely.
• Authentication and authorization: Implementing robust authentication mechanisms, such as OAuth or JSON Web Tokens (JWT), ensures that only authorized users can access specific resources within the application.

Agile is a set of principles and values for software development that prioritize flexibility, collaboration, and customer satisfaction. The four key values are:

• Individuals and interactions over processes and tools.
• Working software over comprehensive documentation.
• Customer collaboration over contract negotiation.
• Responding to change over following a plan.

1. Iterative and incremental development: Building and refining a web application through small, repeatable cycles, enhancing features incrementally with each iteration.
2. Scrum and kanban: Employing agile frameworks like Scrum for structured sprints or Kanban for continuous flow to manage tasks and enhance team efficiency.
3. Cross-functional teams: Forming collaborative teams with diverse skill sets, ensuring all necessary expertise is present for comprehensive web development.
4. Customer collaboration: Engaging customers throughout the development process to gather feedback, validate requirements, and ensure the delivered product aligns with expectations.
5. Adaptability to change: Embracing changes in requirements or priorities even late in the development process to enhance the product's responsiveness to evolving needs.
6. User stories and backlog: Capturing functional requirements through user stories and maintaining a backlog of prioritized tasks to guide development efforts.
7. Continuous integration and continuous delivery (CI/CD): Implementing automated processes to continuously integrate code changes and deliver updated versions, ensuring a streamlined and efficient development pipeline.

• Outline of web design and web development
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